The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution by C.L.R. James, written in 1938, is a history of the Haitian Revolution, pivotal not only for those interested in that history for for those interested in Historical Sociology. James’s book provides a comprehensive and complex portrait of the event, centering particularly on the ex-slave and rebel leader, Toussaint L’Ouverture. However, James looks at this history through a Marxist framework by highlighting the critical role of not only class but also race in broader struggles throughout history.
Summary:
The book’s thirteen chapters can be further categorized into several distinct sections. Although delving into each detail of this book is beyond the scope of this summary, I will attempt to highlight key themes and developments of these sections.
In the opening chapters of the book, James sets the stage for the Haitian Revolution by vividly portraying the historical and social landscape of Santa Domingo, which would later evolve into Haiti. This landscape included not only the enslaved population, who constituted more than ninety percent of Santa Domingo’s later Haiti’s inhabitants, and the “big whites” (planters), but also the “mulattos” and free Blacks, who, despite their freedom, faced severe limitations on their rights and were frequent targets of various forms of discrimination and brutality. Additionally, there were the “small whites,” responsible for managing plantations and smaller administrative offices. Furthermore, Santa Domingo was influenced by bourgeoisie merchants engaged in trade between the region and the metropole, the French political elite, and thinkers who participated in ongoing debates regarding the legitimacy of slavery, especially in the context of Enlightenment ideals. To complicate matters further, larger geopolitical struggles entangled British and Spanish actors in the conflict, as they sought to exert control over Santa Domingo itself.
The second section of the book delves into the early resistance of enslaved individuals, the emergence of the “mulattos” as a significant force in the conflict, and the complex interactions between this resistance and the French Revolutionary government, leading to the eventual abolition of slavery. It also covers the British invasion of the island and the remarkable ascent of Toussaint Louverture from a former enslaved person to a general, ultimately becoming the leader of Santa Domingo.
The third section of the book revolves around the ascension of Napoleon Bonaparte in France and his decision to launch an invasion of Santa Domingo with the intent to re-enslave its Black inhabitants, under the leadership of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc. This section chronicles France’s conflicts not only with Toussaint Louverture but also with his generals, most notably Jean-Jacques Dessalines. It highlights the devastating toll on the French forces, inflicted not only by the rebels but also by rampant disease, particularly yellow fever. Additionally, it explores Louverture’s attempts at negotiation with the French and favorable treatment of the white population, which not only eroded support among his own followers but also culminated in his eventual capture, imprisonment, and subsequent death in 1803 while incarcerated in a French prison. The book concludes with the eventual defeat of the French forces, the emergence of Dessalines as the first Emperor of Haiti, and the tragic 1804 massacre of the remaining white population in the newly established nation of Haiti.
Intersecting Realities: Race and Class in James’s Marxist Lens
As noted, James provides a detailed historical account structured through the lens of Marxist historiography. Marxist historiography traditionally emphasizes class struggle and economic institutions as the primary forces shaping historical events and processes. This perspective is clearly evident in the book, particularly in how the social organization of the island of Santa Domingo and its institution of slavery was driven by the growing demand for sugar in the metropole. However, James goes beyond traditional Marxist historiography in several ways. Unlike the typical Marxist narrative, the Haitian Revolution wasn’t a simple struggle between an oppressor class and an oppressed class but a highly intricate and multifaceted conflict involving various social classes with shifting alliances between them.
Moreover, James is notable for introducing the race question into Marxist historiography. He occupies a middle ground among Marxist theorists in this regard. Throughout the book, he thoroughly explores the intersections of race and class. Towards the end of the book, James explicitly acknowledges that he is examining race within the context of his argument regarding Toussaint Louverture’s failure to fully commit to the revolution. James notes:
The race question is subsidiary to the class question in politics, and to think of imperialism in terms of race is disastrous. But to neglect the racial factor as merely incidental is an error only less grave than to make it fundamental. (p. 283)
James’s contribution in highlighting the race question within Marxist historiography is noteworthy. However, it’s important to recognize that his argument, which downplays the significance of race compared to class, invites critique from future black historians in the Marxist historiography tradition, like Oliver C. Cox and Cedric Robinson, who firmly asserted that race and racism are not only inherent but also integral to capitalist development.
In addition, James’s work is important in shedding light on the significance of the Haitian Revolution within the context of other contemporary and future revolutions, such as the American and French Revolutions, as well as the Russian Revolution. Historically, the Haitian Revolution during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has been largely overlooked, downplayed, or misrepresented, as Michel-Rolph Trouillot highlights in Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (1995). James emphasizes the dialectical relationship between the European Enlightenment and its influence on enslaved individuals in Santa Domingo, particularly Toussaint Louverture, who engaged with anti-slavery French thinker Guillaume Raynal’s works. Furthermore, James underscores the impact of the Haitian Revolution on French revolutionary thinkers who reevaluated their stance on slavery, eventually leading to its outlawing in 1794 (though this ban was later overturned by Napoleon in 1802). Additionally, James acknowledges not only the significance of black and “mulatto” French soldiers who fought in the American Revolution (e.g., André Rigaud) and later returned to Haiti to fight for independence but also the spread of news about the revolution to the American South, which had profound effects on both enslaved individuals and their owners attempting to suppress such information.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, this book stands as a pivotal work in historical literature, with particular significance in the realm of historical sociology, notably within the framework of Marxist historiography. While certain critiques, such as James’s prioritization of class over race, his extensive focus on Toussaint L’Ouverture, and the simplification of historical complexities to fit within a Marxist paradigm, may be valid, the merits of the book far outweigh its limitations.
What James accomplishes in this text extends beyond the mere documentation of the Haitian Revolution’s global historical importance. He plays a crucial role in advancing Marxist historiography by highlighting the pivotal role of racial dynamics within a predominantly class-based system. This not only sheds light on the Haitian Revolution’s profound significance but also enriches our understanding of how race and class intersect not only in Haiti but the world, as well in the broader context of historical and sociological analysis.
The Online Sociologist 